By Delin Liu, VI Form

Moral Values in Stoicism: Impulse, Evil, and Good 

Student-Submitted Note: This piece of research work was one that I finished last summer. There are no major parameters that restricted this research, it was a self-guided research project with a mentor that constantly provided me with feedback. The topic was developed by myself, and I was the sole author of this paper. The project focused on the study of philosophy because I was mesmerized by the ideology of stoicism from Dr. Harwood’s philosophy class last fall. The research and writing process took about two months.

Abstract

Stoicism has made massive contributions to the philosophy of life from ancient days. The contemporary world has also witnessed its return. The main question thus pits it against ancient philosophies with the intention to discern if stoicism as a school of thought can be useful in informing man on how to find the so-called good life. This study delves into an analysis of stoicism in three parts. The first part of this proposed paper defines Impulse, Good, and Evil according to Stoic philosophy, intending to show that stoicism has a designated condition for achieving good for all humans. This is further buttressed by the second part that offers insight into the moral value of stoicism, where an exploration of its philosophical and ideological concepts serves to inform on the value it presents towards achieving happiness. Finally, the last part of this research takes into consideration ancient philosophies and the effects of these philosophies on Modern philosophers. 

1. Introduction 

Stoic philosophy has exerted significant influence over ethical thoughts starting from early Christianity to modern-day philosophy. There is little research that seeks to develop its influence and even appreciates the same. History places Stoics in a position where they have been drivers of claims that some may argue defy common sense and, at the same time, maintain inspiration for defenders of the philosophy’s standards. 

The main belief in Stoicism is that our life should be in agreement with nature. This derives from having the ability to reason, thus forming a particular understanding of oneself and their true good. Contrary to Aristotle, whose perception was that virtue is not sufficient for happiness, Stoicism advances that virtue is the ultimate good. It is, therefore, not only necessary but also sufficient to bring happiness. To this end, this discourse shall argue that stoicism is fundamental in human life and can contribute immensely to human being finding their good. 

The Stoics progressive nature follows a rational organization and a well-ordered system. It means that anything happening at any particular time is well designed to fit a coherent and structured divine system. Indeed, this draws many similarities to the concept of “fate,” which perceives a well-defined ultimate end in a rationally constructed setting. Thus, if it is to live in agreement in nature, our wills should be conformed to events without room for chance. Notably, this is also the same approach that Zeus adopts. Another perspective of nature that they hold is that everything within the universe possesses a specific constitution and character. Surviving in the universe will require that each thing achieves the necessary characteristics defined for survival. 

Take the case of a corn plant, for example. The absorption of water, nutrients, and warmth in the early stages of germination, growth, reproduction, and waste expulsion are the basics for a healthy corn plant. However, this is not the same case for a Cacti plant whose constitution and character largely differ from the former. 

This analogy is not to paint human nature as simple and basic as the character of plants on Earth. Humans are designed to require more complex behaviors to live in agreement with nature. However, It is imperative to outline this perception in the context of animals to set apart the ultimate human nature according to Stoicism. While capacities such as the raising of offspring, desire, movement, and senses are common among animals and absent in plants, human beings also possess the capacity to reason. To live in agreement with nature, as humans, will require the exercise of this special and inherent character. 

On this basis, the perception of concepts such as impulse, good, and evil within Stoicism is set. To achieve the full breadth of the suppositions made above, the first part of this paper shall delve into the definition of impulse, good, and evil in Stoicism and compare it to other schools of thought. The second will investigate the philosophical concept and ideology of Stoicism to outline the moral value of Stoicism clearly. Lastly, it will also draw connections with modern-day philosophy to establish a strong conclusion regarding the Stoic philosophy approach to life. 

1.1 Impulse 

Impulse in Stoicism originates from the Stoic philosophy of the mind. This draws from an in-depth analysis of the brain at both logical and physical levels that the Stoic philosophy is founded. In the development of the philosophy of the mind, Chrysippus was key in establishing the mature Stoic psychology. His perception was that the human soul is made up of a substance akin to breath known as pneuma. This pneuma originates from a portion of divine pneuma, thus providing human beings with both reason and intelligence. 

Further analysis of the pneuma identifies the soul to have eight parts, namely the five senses, the speech, reproductive, and central commanding faculties. It is prudent to note that the central commanding faculties have the power to control the pneuma in all the other parts of the soul. In addition to the eight defined parts of the soul, the central commanding faculty comprise our characteristics, including rationality, impulse, assent, and reason. 

Furthermore, presentations represent the fundamental power of the central commanding faculty. Every other psychological state and activity, including impulse, as shall be discussed, is either a reaction to or an extension of presentation. According to Zeno, the founding father of Stoicism, presentation within the central commanding faculty is comprised of two elements, namely the phenomenal experience of the object and the representational content within the world that it represents. Indeed, it is on this foundation that Stoics perceive presentation to include affection owing to the emphasis on the undetachable nature of the phenomenon in question with information on what it represents. This means the sight of sunshine provides information and an experience of the day as sunny. Chrysippus later departed from this perception on the basis that it offered no clear solution as to the experience provided by abstract objects. 

While a claim has been put forth that assent is the fundamental basis of the central commanding faculty. It is imperative to note that not all presentations to the mind receive assent. This is attributable to the power of reason. In Stoicism, the ultimate virtue derives from being able to withhold assent in situations where conditions are not favorable to form a clear and truly informed decision. Thus assent, by extension of the ability to reason, affirms the character of human beings to be able to entertain thoughts without accepting the same. It is on this basis, therefore, that impulse arises as a development of the theory of action. Impulse exists within the Stoic philosophy to also initiate motion. Experience and representational information generate the inclination to act following a presentation to the mind. This kind of presentation calls an individual to act, as can be seen through pneuma activation of specific organs of action. However, it is pertinent to develop the respective steps prior to getting to impulse as the background above provides. These steps include initial perception of objects or events in the world, presentation with the central commanding faculty, evaluation by the power to reason, and determination of the appropriateness of the action hence the assent to action. The decision to assent at the end draws guidance from the individual’s perception of actions as either good, evil, or indifferent, and this begs the question of what it means to be evil or good.

1.2 Good 

According to the Stoics, good is “what is complete according to nature for a natural being.” As arguments above have identified, the most precious endowment of the human being is the reasoning capacity. Thus, anything which draws from the rationality of reason as an action to achieve a status of happiness as both a necessity and a condition achieves the status of good or virtue. To live a virtuous life, the Stoics demand 

evidence of four main virtues, namely wisdom, justice, courage, and moderation. Under wisdom, anything good will include the application of good sense, approaching actions with good calculation, and discretion in action. Courage, in stoic minds, can be shown through being industrious, confident, enduring, and optimistic. Moderation emphasizes self-control, modesty, and good discipline, while Justice claim is on honesty, fairness, and equity. One can note that actualizing these actions will necessitate some level of reasoning, thus affirming the need for reason in determining what is good. To this end, a person will be good if their action evidence wisdom, justice, courage, and moderation in all their different manifestations. 

1.3 Evil 

Consequently, anything which contravenes reason and, as a result, generates misery is evil or a vice. Stoicism divides vice into foolishness, injustice, cowardice, and lack of temperance. Notably, there are other manifestations of vice which exists as contained within the primary classes. What is critical in its definition is the fact that a person will be evil if subject to presentation and evaluation of, say, a conflict between two people, the person decides to favor the wrong party although reason dictates that the party is indeed wrong. Such will be a contravening action reason and thus can be affirmed as a vice. To this end, it would mean that a person who is acting from the point of corrupted reason, that is, neglecting that which will advance happiness, is evil. 

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Delin Liu is a VI form boarding student from Qingdao, China. Delin enjoys studying American literature, philosophy, and classical languages. Delin is also a passionate researcher who loves to analyze and write papers on the subject of humanity.