By Xinyu (Catherine) Zhang, Class of 2026

Editor’s Note: History Fellowship is a course in which students conduct independent, college-level historical research on a topic of their choice with close faculty mentorship. This paper was selected as one of the seven strongest from this year’s course.

What is happening to the European political landscape in the twenty-first century? Fifty years after the international community vowed “never again,” ethnic nationalist terms are re-emerging across chambers: “illiberal democracy,” “national sovereignty,” “parallel societies.” These expressions, related to far-right and populist movements, are dominating news headlines and shaping policies. Germany revived its national flag-waving in 2014, Great Britain left the European Union (EU) in 2016, right-wing parties in Italy became the majority in 2018, Polish women initiated the largest national protest against the unconstitutional ruling on abortion in 2021, Hungary had the largest anti-government demonstration Pride Parade in 2025, and the consecutive resignation of the French Prime Minister. These seemingly separate events all signify one common trend: populism has been on the rise in Europe since the start of the twenty-first century. The rise of populism, especially in the form of far-right populism, is not coincidental. It takes root in most European societies, causing changes to existing party systems and posing challenges to democracy. In the 2024 European Parliament Elections, populist parties won 36 percent of the total seats, coming in first in six countries and close to governing in nine others.

Click here to continue reading: From Margins to Mainstream, From Pluralism to Nativism: Xenophobia and Far-right Populism in Twenty-first Century Europe